Differential encoding pdf

Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Frank Andrasik. A short summary of this paper. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. Ohio University, Athens, Ohio The differential encoding theory of the spacing effect was tested utilizing Martin's encoding variability notion, in which it is hypothesized that low-meaningfulness items are more variable in their encodings than are high-meaningfulness items.

In a series of three experiments using a continuous paired associate learning task, it was predicted that the spacing vs. None of the experiments supported this prediction. In addition, it was found that items recognized on their second presentation were more likely to be recalled than were those items not recognized. It was concluded that an item's repetitions are more effective if one code is formed and elaborated with each repetition rather than if more than one code is formed.

The spacing effect refers to the experimental finding test. Just how and why differences in the encodings that two spaced repetitions of an item lead to better occur depends on the particular differential encoding performance on a later test than do two massed theory consulted.

For example, Martin focuses presentations. This effect has been found in free recall on the idea that the variability of the encodings of an learning Glanzer, ; Madigan, ; Melton, , item is dependent on the meaningfulness of that item.

However, there are two Young, , and in short-term memory experiments problems with a differential encoding explanation of the Peterson, ; Pollatsek, Note 1. In addition, Bjork spacing effect. First, in many forms of the theory, the and Allen and Tzeng have found that in a specific coding and retrieval mechanisms which lead to short-term memory task increasing the difficulty of the the spacing effect are not precisely formulated.

Second, the duration of the interpolated task. A more difficult differential encoding may be able to explain the initial task led to better performance on a later test. Similar increase in performance which takes place as the spacing results have been obtained by Robbins and Wise of presentation increases, but it cannot explain why in in paired associate learning.

For reasons of parsimony paired associate learning performance after reaching a and because of the lack of evidence to the contrary, it maximum declines with further increased spacing. Some theories propose that consolidation of the What these mechanisms are is still in doubt see Bjork, memory strength of the first presentation is maximized for a review.

Simply stated, mechanisms in the organism. Consolidation theories differential encoding predicts better performance with based on memory strength seem simply to assume the spaced presentations because spaced presentations are spacing phenomenon as a basic characteristic of the more likely to result in the item's being encoded in a learning processes of the organism and suggest little to different way on the second presentation.

Two different the experimenter as to how he may change the encodings of an item means that the item has a better characteristics of the spacing effect. Brelsford et aI. In this model each presented Portions of this research were presented at the annual meeting of item is placed in a rehearsal buffer, where it resides for a the Midwestern Psychological Association. May The authors would like to thank Marc Foreman, Sandra Gervis, period of time as information concerning the item is Nancy Glasser, and Daniel Lohr for their assistance in collecting the data.

If a second Requests for reprints should be sent to Francis S. Athens, Ohio Therefore, the second presentation is difficult to learn and may occupy more space in the effective only if presented after some delay. This rehearsal buffer, the subject could choose simply to multiprocess model also has a decay factor in long-term ignore some of the items and rehearse the others. The explanation of the spacing effect than it does of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model does well in explaining the consolida tion explanation.

For example, Madigan found in a free recall experiment an optimum spacing of Method 40 items, which was the largest spacing used. Also, the Subjects. The subjects were 24 volunteers enrolled in introductory courses at Ohio University. The subjects received rehearsal buffer model predicts just the opposite of the course credit for their participation. Increasing Lists. Two types of lists were made up. The other eight lists had eee trigrams as stimuli. Hence, the eight eee lists and the eight evc lists were explained, more has to be known about what factors matched in structure.

On both types of lists, the responses were influence the shape of the spacing vs. There were 64 items in each list: each item was presented twice and then tested RRT So far, the type of learning task and the degree of paradigm in a continuous paired associate learning task. Four difficulty of the interpolated task have been discussed as different items occurred with each of the following spacings of two factors which do this.

In addition, Tzeng has presentations: O. After the second presentation of shown that increasing the duration of the interpolated the item. The lists not statistically significant. The effect of meaningfulness were made up following the procedure described by Young on the spacing phenomenon is of particular interest Note 2 : A stimulus.

After all 64 items were placed in the list in this manner, filler vs. Ten of influencing differential encoding. Martin argues that additional filler items were used at the beginning of the list to items such as low-meaningfulness consonant trigrams eliminate any primacy effect.

The lists were presented using a Lafayette IBM tend to be less integrated and, thus, have more possible memory drum. Three Hunter interval timers were used in encodings than do items such as high-meaningfulness tandem to turn the drum and start a Hunter KlocKounter at the consonant trigrams. Applying this notion to the spacing same time. On test trials subjects responded vocally, closing a effect, it seems that as the spacing of presentations Grason-Stadler voice-operated relay.

The subject's response and increases, performance on the low-meaningfulness items response latency were recorded by the experimenter. The subjects were run individually for two min should improve faster than performance on the sessions. During each high-meaningfulness items. This is because differential session, the list used had either eecs or eves as stimuli, and the encoding theory predicts that an item with two order of presentation was counterbalanced over subjects.

The encodings is more likely to have an encoding retrieved two lists used with each subject were always based on different randomizations. Both the presentation trials and test trials were from memory than is an item with only one encoding. The data consisting of the proportion of items should be reached sooner than the optimal spacing for correct were evaluated using a 2 by 2 by 16 analysis of variance, high-meaningfulncss itcms. Only list order was It would also be desirable to make predictions about a between-subjects factor.

Because the subjects were not the effects of item meaningfulncss from a fairly explicit required to respond on each test trial, the Ns in each cell for the latency data were unequal.

Therefore, the latency data were consolidation model such as that of Atkinson and analyzed using a 2 by 16 least-squares solution analysis of Shiffrin However, differences in item variance, with the specific factors being stimulus meaningfulness meaningfulness in this model could lead to a number of and spacing. This makes predictions about the shape of the spacing curve difficult.

For Results example, with low. Figure 2 shows the mean response latencies c U in seconds for ecc and eve items. As with the III. It indicates an 0 f optimal spacing of from 15 to 18 intervening items and It. Figure 1. Deep encoding. The measure of as fewer operations can be carried out in a given time. The decrement after delayed recall com- larities among the items. In other words, processing speed was a predictor Finally, the global verbal long-term memory score of the number of items words or digits that could be was entered as the dependent variable.

The global recalled in sequence. In our data, associations with selective loop. However, it should be noted that there is no attention were also observed in the control group, direct evidence in our data that subjects with faster although the results were less consistent than in processing speed rehearsed the material more often, patients. This suggests that distractibility interferes thence enhancing encoding; this strategy can only be with rehearsal also in a normal population.

Indeed, a inferred. The If the phone number is encoded encoding in either group. This could imply that dis- according to meaningful clusters of numbers e. On the other hand, distractors. This was revealed in both it is related in a more pervasive way to memory per- short-term memory as assessed by the forward and formance. Signal detection analysis of short-term of processing speed and selective attention were likely recall in schizophrenia.

Lastly, the variety of pharmacological agents Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Linguistic and cognitive failures in schizo- phrenia. A multivariate analysis. Journal of Abnormal depressed patients. Indeed, various Hasher L, Zacks R. Kail R, Park Y. Processing time, articulation time, and memory and distractibility, therefore, they could indirectly span. Remembering of verbal materials by schizophrenic young underlying processes. In: Schwartz S, editor. Language and cognition in schizo- phrenia.

Hillsdale: Erlbaum, Speed and intelligence in old age. Acknowledgements Martin A. Aging, cognitive performance and mental speed. Information processing and atten- Yale for their assistance.

Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies. Memory impairment unique features, and training. NIMH Genetics initiative. Archives in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Oltmanns TF. Selective attention in schizophrenic and manic psy- Baddeley A. Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Zwahr M, Gaines CL. Clinical ance across the life span. The state of functioning depression, positive and negative symptoms and two types of of working memory in schizophrenia.

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